Renewable Energy in the UK: Government Role

Renewable Energy in the UK: Government Role UK Renewable Energy: Electricity Generation and the governments role in driving CO2 reductions. Business Management EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This dissertation will mainly concentrate on UKs efforts to increase renewables contribution to electricity generation in the UK, which are part of a broader range of government strategies to reduce CO2 to meet global concerns and international obligations. It will also examine the forces driving the development of renewable energy market in the UK, as well as the overview of the governments role in driving CO2 reductions. The governments strategy on renewables includes several different elements, each attacking the problem from a different angle: mandatory regulation, information and education, technology RD support, and establishment of market-based mechanisms. The main findings presented will be based mainly on the literature review, expert opinions and future forecasts. A review of recent literature on this topic highlights the risk of failure due to failure of coordination among the many initiatives and government bodies involved, and the dangers of insufficient data in measuring progress. Also, they reveal the practical limitations of reliance on renewable to fulfill future electricity generation needs. The first part of the main analysis will provide an overview of the renewable energy market in the UK; it will include a summary of the current renewable energy policy and the main instruments which act as a driving forces for the development of renewables in the UK, as well as electricity market overview; second part would specifically concentrate on evaluation of whether the policies and targets set by government are efficient and achievable, the conclusion will summarize the findings and elaborate on future prospects for the renewable energy market in the UK. The available data indicates that the UK is already falling behind on its original plans for the uptake of renewable. However, government policy suggests growing awareness of the limitations of most renewables; and a consequent shift in focus away from renewables towards easier ‘bigger solutions such as nuclear power and carbon sequestration for coal-fired power stations. CHAPTER 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION A sustainable energy future is possible, but only if we act urgently and decisively to promote, develop and deploy a full mix of energy technologies We have the means, now we need the will†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Claude Mandil, International Energy Agency (IEA) In the 21st century, there has been a significant increase in energy demand due to factors such as population growth and changes in our lifestyle. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) today 86.5 % of total worldwide energy consumption is generated from fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil and coal; which are said to be non-renewable, and are the main cause for increase in green house gases and carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007, rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are the primary cause of global warming since 1950, and are expected to rise due to ongoing burning of fossil fuels and land-use change. As the worlds fossil fuels continue to diminish at an alarming rate, and global energy demand is forecasted to increase by 60% over the next 25 years (G8 Summit, 2005), alternative forms of energy must be developed that are economically cost effective, environmentally friendly, and easily harness ed. The development of renewable energy sources as a solution to these problems is expected to play a major role in the future energy supply and has developed a considerable interest within national government policies, environmental groups and the private sector. The term ‘renewable energy can be defined as â€Å"energy that is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly† (Energy Statistics, 2004). The renewable energy sources are also covered by Europes climate change and energy policy. In March 2007, the European Council set a target of 20 percent of the total EU energy consumption to be generated from renewables by 2020. The policy also commits the EU Member States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent by 2020 and by 30 percent globally (The EC White Paper, 2007 (BERR)). According to BERR renewable energy is an integral part of the UK Governments longer-term aim of reducing CO2 emissions by 60% by 2050. The Government has set targets of reducing CO2 emissions by 20% by 2010 and 10% of electricity supply from renewable energy by 2010 (Digest of UK Energy Statistics, 2007). This raises the main questions addressed in this dissertation: Can the UK expect to meet and exceed the existing targets? What measure will be required to realize this potential and to encourage further investment in renewables? Despite the fact that renewables are seen by many policy-makers as a solution for improving energy security and saving the environment, there is still some uncertainty whether renewables could compete with conventional energy sources. Supportive policies and heavy investments are still needed to promote further development and deployment of renewables in energy markets. The establishment of new renewable energy technologies and their efficiency will depend on the costs and effectiveness. As a result, in order to promote renewable energy technology into the market there is a strong need to identify and analyse the policies which have a direct effect on technology and market development. 1.2 Renewable energy in the UK The United Kingdom is one of the worlds most globalized countries with the second largest economy in Europe and a population of 60 million. The UK currently contributes about 2 percent to global emissions, which, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, were estimated to be 38 billion tones carbon dioxide in 2004. UK energy industries are the main contributors to UK greenhouse gas emissions; according to statistics CO2 accounted for about 85 per cent of the UKs greenhouse gas emissions in 2006. In order to reduce emissions, the 2007 UK Energy White Paper sets out an objective to cut the UKs carbon emissions by 60% by 2050, with real progress by 2020. One way of achieving those targets would be by generating our energy from sources that produce very low or zero levels of greenhouse gases such as renewable energy sources. Renewable energy is â€Å"an integral part of the Governments strategy for reducing carbon emissions as renewable energy resources produce very li ttle carbon or other greenhouse gases†. (Commission, 2006) In 2006, about 75 percent of UK electricity was generated from fossil fuels, about 19 percent from nuclear power, and the remaining 4 percent from other renewables (Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES), 2007). The UK has one of the most suitable markets for the development of renewable sources of energy due to its geographic location; especially in wind, wave and tidal energy. However, the UK is also rich in fossil fuels and until the climate change issue became evident the successive governments have neglected renewable energy as an alternative source of our main energy supply. The UK Government initially started to show support for development of renewable energy sources in 1990, when renewables became a part of the so-called non-fossil fuel obligation (NFFO), originally set up to protect nuclear power. The issue of climate change and high levels of greenhouse gases has given a new drive to the development of renewable energy in the UK. As part of the Climate Change Programme, in June 2000 the UK government replaced NFFO by the Renewables Obligation (RO) in England and Wales with the main aims to encourage further the development of the UK renewable energy industry and to achieve a 10 percent share of renewables in electricity generation by 2010 (Environmental Policy Integration). Overall the renewable energy contribution is increasing. Total electricity generation from renewables in 2006 amounted to 18,133 GWh, an increase of 1,263 GWh (+7 ½ per cent) on 2005. The main contributors to this substantial increase were 1,072 GWh from onshore wind (+43 per cent), 248 GWh (+62 per cent) from offshore wind 134 GWh (+3 per cent) from landfill gas and 119 GWh (+12 per cent) from municipal solid waste combustion (UK Electricity Statistics,2007). One of the other main drivers for the development of alternative energy sources in the UK aside from climate change issues is the security of energy supply. The UK continues to heavily rely on the diminishing sources of fossil fuels, such as coal, gas and oil, which are increasingly sourced in geopolitically unreliable areas, such as Venezuela, Nigeria and Russia. According to the UK Energy Statistics 12 percent of the UKs gas supply came from gas imports (Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES), 2007). Therefore further development of alternative energy sources in the UK will reduce the amount of imported fossil fuels, as well as have a key role in resolving the climate change issue. In order to maintain the UKs energy supply and to achieve the carbon dioxide targets set in the Kyoto Protocol under which the UK has committed itself to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5 percent by 2012 (Sustainable Development Indicators in Your Pocket, 2007), as well as longer term goal set out in Energy White Paper to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 60 percent by 2050, it is vital to sustain further development of energy sources that produce low or zero levels of greenhouse gases, such as renewable energy. Figure 1, shows the Kyoto target and CO2 emissions, 1990 to 2012. Figure 1: Defra, BERR, â€Å"Sustainable Development Indicators in Your Pocket†, 2007 The Governments policies together with the White Paper made proposals to help increase the sources of renewable energy in the UK. The initial proposals set out in the Energy White Paper 2007, concentrate on three main areas: Electricity generation, by strengthening and modifying the Renewables Obligation, by reforming the planning system and by removing barriers to the growth of decentralised electricity generation; heat, by publishing a Biomass Strategy which identifies opportunities for increasing the use of renewables in energy production and by announcing further work to develop a more strategic approach to heat; and Transport, by requiring through The Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation Programme (RTFO) that an increasing proportion of our transport fuel should come from renewable sources. (Energy White Paper , 2007) According to the recent study undertaken by the Poyry Energy (Oxford) LTD, by 2020, renewable energy supply is expected to account for around 12 percent of EU total energy demand, where 59 percent of this volume will come from electricity generation, 32 percent from renewable heat and 9 percent from transport (Compliance costs for meeting the 20% renewable energy target in 2020., 2008) This paper will mainly concentrate on electricity generation through renewable energy sources, as consistency of electricity supply is fundamental to a robust UK economy, and renewables appear to be a suitable solution to improve security of electricity supply in the UK. The UK Government has set a target in order to promote the generation of electricity from renewable sources, by 2010, 10% of UK electricity should come from renewable sources (BERR, UK). The costs of electricity production from renewable energy sources presented in the figure below demonstrate that generation costs depend on the resource conditions in different countries or regions, particularly the EU Member States (Compliance costs for meeting the 20% renewable energy target in 2020, 2008). Therefore, in order to establish and sustain the competitiveness of renewable energy sources it is essential to analyse whether renewable energy technologies can compete with conventional sources. Figure 2: Electricity generation cost of renewable energy technologies (EU Commission 2005: 24, Support of electricity from RE sources). To support the new energy strategy there was a significant development to the UK Renewables Policy, the government has established key elements such as Renewables Obligation, which is driving force for the investment and consumer interest in renewables and it does so by obliging electricity suppliers to source a certain percentage of electricity from renewable sources. It has also launched strategies which allow UK to identify its main strengths and to develop world-leading capabilities in renewable energy sector. The main drivers of UK Renewable Energy Policy include: Renewable Obligation (RO) The RO is the main support scheme for renewable electricity projects in the UK. It places an obligation on UK suppliers of electricity to source an increasing proportion of their electricity from renewable sources. Suppliers are required to produce evidence of their compliance with this obligation to the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem). Evidence can be via certificates, referred to as Renewable Obligations Certificates (Renewable Obligation, 2008). UK renewable electricity has increased considerably since the introduction of RO. In 2006 electricity supplied from RO eligible sources stood at around 4% of the UKs total electricity, up from 1.8% in 2002 (Energy White Paper , 2007). Climate Change Levy (CCL) Exemption The Climate Change Levy (CCL) is â€Å"an environmental tax levied on the supply of certain taxable commodities, for example electricity, gas and coal, and charged by energy suppliers to final business consumers. Domestic, and most charitable, consumers do not pay CCL (Microgeneration and the Climate Change Levy, 2007). In order to support further development of renewables and to encourage consumers to use environmentally friendly sources of energy, renewable electricity supplied to non-domestic consumers is exempt from CCL. Research Development Programme The Government has constantly introduced programmes for renewable energy sources to remove obstacles which stood in the way of the development of renewables by furthering research and gathering information as well as assist industrial activities in the UK. Such programmes support the Renewable Obligation and the exempt renewable from Climate Change Levy. The programmes will also require cooperation with in the industry between the government and environmental organisations to maintain a steady approach to the growth of the renewable energy sources in the market. The programmes also set out plans to address the key issues together, with the concentration divided between technology development as well as non-technological issues, such as raising finance and obtaining planning permission. Each technology is set to be tested though several stages, which include assessment, RD, demonstration and market entry, full-scale industrialization and competition (Challenges Ahead for UK Renewable Energy Program, 2007). Strategies for individual technology programmes also include this operation at the different stages of technology development. An exit strategy will also contribute to the competitiveness of the industry without creating a subsidy. Green trading can play a major part in electricity generation strategy to move to a system of renewables which operates strictly in the commercial market. The Government will carry out several actions together with the industry in order to encourage the development of renewable technologies in the UK, such actions include technological and environmental assessment in addition to resource assessment ;demonstration; the industrialisation of the market; removing legal and administrative obstacles; dealing with planning and development control issues; promoting research and marketing and education. The set priorities for the development of renewable technologies depend on their cost effectiveness and the amount of greenhouse gas emissions that can be reduced on different timescales. The priorities for the development of the renewable energy sources are set in time scales and include: Near Term includes most competitive renewable technologies in the UK. (Geothermal (heating and cooling),waste and some biomass residues, landfill gas, onshore wind, hydro, passive solar) Medium Term (by the year 2010) includes renewables that show maximum contribution by 2010, as well as assist to achieve the target of 10 percent.(Some biomass residues, energy crops, offshore wind) Longer Term (after 2010) includes renewable technologies that show longer term potential under the RD programme. (Fuel cells, photovoltaics, wave) Very Long Term (after 2050) includes renewable technologies which at this stage are only worth pursuing through the basic research. (Tidal barrage, hydrogen, ocean thermal currents) (UK Renewable Eneegy Policy , 2007) The Department of Trade and Industry will divide the budget allocated for the development of renewables according to the priorities table set above, particularly between the short, medium and longer term periods. The renewable technologies which are included in short and medium term will benefit from the market simulation under the Renewable Obligation. 1.3 main aim: The mixture of the issues introduced briefly in the first Chapter leads to the overall aim of investigating the governments role in achieving the targets set and through analyzing the market and the economic forecasts concluding whether these targets are achievable. Following chapter will review the existing literature that has investigated UK Renewable Market and Policies, critically evaluated the UK performance in renewables sector and consist of relevant data in order to set out the specific objectives for this study. United Kingdom has one of the most suitable potential markets for the development of renewable energy sources and could act as a leading example for the rest of the world, but the main question remains whether the UK will adopt the right approach to support the new technologies or is it just an ambitious set of targets based on wrong evaluations? CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Global Perspective Today, the rising issue of climate change can be identified as â€Å"the biggest challenge facing humanity† (International Socialist Group, 2006). The UK Prime Minister has said climate change is â€Å"probably, long-term the single most important issue we face as a global community†. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that â€Å"global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions must be reduced at least 70 percent over the next 100 years to stabilize atmospheric CO2 concentrations† Considerable technical change will be needed to maintain growth in economy combined with large CO2 emission reductions at a cost as low as possible (Grubb, 1997), however the timeframe is not clear as many ways lead to certain CO2 stabilization levels which correspond to fixed increasing amounts of CO2 that can be released during the target year. Furthermore, economic arguments were raised favoring deferred emission abatement pathways (Wigley, 1996). There is a possibility that unexpected political objectives may trigger the need of short-term investments in long life capital stock, this leads to high costs due to the early retirement of long life capital stock units. Additionally, there is a high risk of only focusing on short-term emission reduction targets while creating technical change policies in relation to climate change which may result in a framework unable to achieve long-term future targets (Sande ´n, 2005). The increasing concerns of climate change has played one of the key roles in supporting the development of renewable energy sources, which are environmentally friendly and impose low or zero carbon emissions released into the atmosphere. In order to sustain the development of renewables it is essential to meet the stabilization scenario for carbon dioxide reduction and show that they can be competitive in cost with energy from other sources (Houghton, 2004, p.306). Houghton also stated that â€Å"under some circumstances renewable energy sources are already competitive in cost (e.g. local sources of energy), however where there is a direct competition with fossil fuel energy from oil and gas, many renewable energies at present compete only marginally†. Conversely, fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas have limited resources and â€Å"at some time between 2010-2020 the worlds supply of oil and gas will fall below the level required to meet international supply† (Oil and gas running out much faster than expected, 2003). As the result the costs of fossil fuels will increase which will unveil the opportunity for renewable energy sources to compete more easily (Houghton, 2004, p.306). A recent report from the UN environment programme said â€Å"investment in renewables such as wind, solar and biomass jumped 43% last year and may be about to increase by much more substantial amounts†. It also predicted that renewable energy sources could supply approximately a quarter of the worlds electricity by 2030. This fast development of renewable energy sources occurred as a result of rising demand for energy, security of energy supplies and the environmental and the dangers associated with the burning of fossil fuels (Sawin, 2004, p.5). The additional drivers for the rapid expansion of renewables incorporate the political support for renewable energy around the world, dramatic cost reductions and significant technology advances (Sawin, 2004, p.5). However, Karl Mallon in his book â€Å"Renewable Energy Policy and Politics: A Handbook for Decision-Making† has set out several challenges which can affect the development of renewable energy sources. Mallon mentioned that renewable projects usually have a long lifetime (20 years or more), but the investment and the main industrial activity occurs at the beginning. Therefore in order for investors to get a return on their investment, the developers on their end will try to make the projects as long as possible and try to establish capacity as early as possible in the scheme to yield the maximum return time (Mallon, 2007). As a result, generation schemes with targets that run less than 20 years will create a market with increasing activity and a massive industry growth for the first few years, and once a capacity meeting the long term target is in place downturn of activity will take place (Mallon, 2007). Mallon also stated that a â€Å"boom-bust† activity cycle is terr ibly inefficient form of industry development; if targets are used they must be dynamic to provide a constant but steady pull on industry. Another challenge which faces the development of renewables is the governments concentration on the economic side, namely where â€Å"the desire for economic certainty overrides the objectives of industry development or climate mitigation† (Mallon, 2007). Furthermore, according to Mallon, effective climate mitigation will require not less than 50-100 years transition to zero-emissions, therefore the schemes with deadlines ending 2010-2015 will make no contribution to solve in the climate change problem. Such schemes only provide economic certainty and tell investors that this is only a short term engagement rather than a long term, ignoring the fact that the prices of renewables and conventional energy change all the time. Finally, Mallon emphasized on the fact that â€Å"it is important to recognize that renewable energy policy consists not just of a driver but rather comprises a complete framework, ignoring or overlooking parts of that framework will undermine the entire vision†. 2.2 UK Perspective The energy policy of the United Kingdom fully supports targets for carbon dioxide emissions and is committed to achieve mandatory 60 percent cut in the UKs carbon emissions by 2050 (Carbon Abatement Technology for Fossil Fuels, 2005). The current interest in renewable energy in the UK reflects the global view in relation to the shortage of the existing energy sources and the necessity of finding alternative energy supplies to meet the future energy demand. The need for securing energy sources as an alternative to the current energy sources, mainly fossil fuels, lies in the uncertainty of such fuels which is diminishing over the years. This is particularly pertinent to the UK as it is estimated that by 2020 the UK could be importing 90% of its gas (which currently produces 41% of energy consumed) (DTI 2006). Additionally, the rising concerns over global warming and climate change also played a major role in ‘shedding the light on renewable energy sources. By 2050, global energy demand could double as populations rise and developing countries expand their economies (World Energy Organization, 2008). The UK Government started to tackle such concerns in 1999 when it introduces its first strategy â€Å"to help deliver a better quality of life through sustainable development† (Tony Blair, The UK Government Sustainable Development Strategy, March 2005). The Governments 2003 Energy White Paper sets a direction towards achieving low carbon economy, by attempting to resolve the issue on domestic basis first and to influence the major players in the global community to follow the same footsteps. The UK Government has committed itself to cut down greenhouse gas emissions, as mentioned above the government; according to its 2003 Energy White Paper, declared that its mission is to move to a low carbon economy and set out its target that by the year 2050 carbon dioxide emissions will be reduced by 60 percent in addition to the Kyoto Protocol target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5 percent by the year 2012, and the ambitious national goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 20 percent below the 1990 levels by the year 2010 (The UK Government Sustainable Development Strategy, 2005). However, the UKs CO2 emissions rose in the period 2002-04 (levels in 2004 showing a 1.5% increase over 2003) (DTI 2005a). These issues are arising at a time when large numbers of the UKs coal and nuclear-fired power stations are also reaching decommissioning age. This presents the UK with an opportunity to re-structure the fuels in its energy mix. According to the British Wind Energy (BWEA) the UK could face some challenges in meeting the renewable energy target of 20 percent by 2020 if it increases the amount of electricity generated under its Renewable Obligation, but puts on hold â€Å"financial penalties for utilities that help fund the program at 2015 levels† (Challenges Ahead for UK Renewable Energy Program, 2007). The BWEA Chief Executive Maria McCaffery has commented on reform proposal: The RO has been highly successful in bringing forward the cheapest renewables: onshore wind, landfill gas and biomass co-firing. The Governments plan to band the RO could allow more technologies to share in this success, particularly offshore wind but this cannot be at the expense of onshore winds current strong growth. Accommodating the more expensive technologies whilst trying to get to a 20% target in 2020 using the same amount of money as a 15% goal is like trying to extract a quart from a pint pot. It just doesnt add up. E ssentially, said BWEA, â€Å"the government is attempting to get a third more renewable power with a mix that includes significant quantities of technologies that are not economic under the current system for the same amount of money† (Challenges Ahead for UK Renewable Energy Program, 2007). John Loughhead, the Executive Director of the  UK Energy Research Centre  (UKERC)  said: Achieving these targets will be challenging, since the UK currently obtains less that 2% of its energy from renewable sources. It is probable that electricity production will have to bear a disproportionate share and initial estimates from the European Commission and others suggest it may need to produce about 40% of all electricity from renewable sources by 2020 if the overall targets are to be met. Additionally, the recent study â€Å"Renewable electricity generation technologies†, January 2008, issued by Institute of Physics (IOP) has outlined further barriers to the development of renewable energy sources. According to the study, one of the main challenges facing the renewables is â€Å"the liberalisation of the UK energy market, the current price of electricity is so low that it is not economically viable to develop and introduce new generating technologies to the market, unless they can be developed at a low cost and can provide electricity predictably at competitive wholesale prices† (Renewable electricity generation technologies, 2008) 2.3 UK Renewable Policy Targets Karl Mannon regards the renewable energy policy as a framework rather a single driver and emphasized that all the parts forming this framework must operate jointly in order for us to achieve the highest benefit of this policy (Mannon, 2007). As to the influence such policies may have on the market, Mannon added that there are unknown factors in these policies which can affect the size of the market, the prices paid for renewable energy or the duration of the scheme. Some of the factors which control the growth of the market include: the level of support, the duration of support eligibility, the duration of support schemes and the quantity of renewables required under the scheme. (Mannon, 2007, p.37) However, Adrian Smith in his report â€Å"Multi-level governance: Towards an analysis of renewable energy governance in the English regions†, December 2006, has identified challenges for governance in promotion of renewable energy systems. Smith, 2006, has outlined that â€Å"governments policy objective of transforming existing energy systems into ones with greater renewable energy content requires coordinated efforts and changes amongst many different actors, institutions and artifacts. Renewable energy systems are complex, and their construction is far from straightforward. It is consequently difficult to direct them into being exclusively through hierarchical government measures like planning† (Smith, 2006). John Sauven, the Executive Director of Greenpeace UK, in his article â€Å"Its rip-off Britain, even when it comes to climate change†, October 2007, has stated that the targets set by Renewable Obligation which were set for electricity suppliers have all been missed and â€Å"the governments own projections show that the final target of just 15 percent in 2015 will also be missed†. Additionally, Dave Toke, in his academic paper, has concluded that â€Å"RO is relatively inflexible in that it effectively sets a single level of payments for all renewable-energy generators, which is relatively generous for onshore wind power, barely sufficient (even with capital grant supplements) for offshore wind power, and not enough for much else. The target of supplying 10% of UK electricity from renewables by 2010 is not likely to be achieved some 7% is a more likely level† (Toke, 2005). Toke, D., also noted that â€Å"the more ambitious the targets are, the more expensive w ill be the incentives (or penalties) needed to ensure compliance with these targets†. The analysis of renewable energy policy carried out by the Carbon Trust, â€Å"Policy Framework for renewables†, July 2006, states that â€Å"overall, the existing renewable energy policy suffers from inefficiencies, resulting in a unit cost of renewable energy to consumers that is higher than necessary given the current technology cost†, as well as â€Å"given the renewable and carbon reduction targets and the 2015 gap, diversity of investment in renewable energy is needed†. The UK policies are not created to determine what a sustainable energy system i

Important People of History Essay

Ancient Greece was known for many things, including great thinkers and philosophers. Many names come to mind from this period, including that of Socrates. Certainly, none are so colorful. He wrote nothing, but his impact was unmatched by others. His ideas were revolutionary, and caused enough controversy that he was finally put on trial in Athens, guaranteeing that his mark on history would be indelible. Socrates was born in 469 B. C. E. to Sophroniscus and Phaenarete. Little is known about him beyond what others wrote, since he resisted any urges to put words on paper. What is known about him comes from Aristophanes, Xenophon, and Plato, all of whom wrote about him. However, their narratives differ in some crucial ways, and so there are some things that will never be known about the enigmatic philosopher. Socrates was a firm believer in the power of the intellect. He insisted that â€Å"a man must order his life by the guidance of his own intellect,† believing that it was this above all that must be cultivated. He never hesitated in saying what he believed, and this tendency made him unpopular in many circles. However, he did not allow this to deter him from expressing these beliefs. Knowledge and truth were paramount to him, and he would not sacrifice these virtues for anything. When he was eighteen, Socrates was required to do the duty of every citizen, and this included training in the Athenian militia. He served the years that were expected of him, engaging in battle in 432 as a foot soldier to help put down a revolt. On the way home from the siege that followed, Socrates saved the life of Alcibiades during a subsequent battle near Spartolus, losing the battle. They returned to Athens in 429, where he was accused of helping the playwright Euripides to write his tragedies. Important People of History Page 2 of 5 Socrates next saw battle at Delium in 424. The Athenians saw defeat yet again, although Socrates distinguished himself once more. In another year, he was yet again immersed in battle, this time at Amphipolis. This ended in another defeat, and was also the last battle that Socrates fought. Peace was made between Athens and Sparta, and this is when Socrates could begin to concentrate in earnest on debates and discussions to pass on his ideas and beliefs. Education, democracy, and Mystery religion were key themes in this. During this time, Socrates married Xanthippe, and they would have two sons. Socrates perhaps became best known for the Socratic Method. This method was meant to help intellectuals come to correct conclusions, and it made definition the most essential point of this. In a desire to find the truth, Socrates believed that one must â€Å"require a standard of truth and an explanation of the causes of error. † The comparison of two ideas is necessary in making a judgment, and those ideas must be clear and not vague. This method lasted throughout the centuries, and is still practiced today. Socrates is also known as the founder of utilitarianism. Ethics and the process of applying his methods to them was a key interest of his, and this study led to utilitarian ideas. With this, he came to the conclusion that good is useful and â€Å"virtue is happiness. † This formed the core of his paradox, which is that men do not willingly commit wrongs, and that this is done only through ignorance. While Socrates wrote nothing, he spent a great deal of his life conversing with others. This was a major part of his Socratic method. He never attempted to teach, for he believed that he had no knowledge. He professed that he was only exceptional in the fact Important People of History Page 3 of 5 that he knew that he knew nothing. It was a goal of his to prove that popular ideas were inconsistent, and he wished to convince all to whom he spoke that their convictions could not stand up under examination. Socrates was well known for frequenting places such as marketplaces, where he would engage people in conversation. He enjoyed doing this with people of all ranks and stations, often putting off important people and gaining their animosity. His manner and lack of deference gained him many enemies; many resenting what they felt were his ridicule. There was nothing that Socrates felt was too sacred to question and criticize, and this included both religion and government. He was perhaps more agnostic than anything, and he had no compunctions about questioning and criticizing the gods. This added to feelings of animosity against him, as did the fact that he was also quite vocal against the ruling powers. It was this that was to lead to his arrest and subsequent trial, which is perhaps the pinnacle of his career. Socrates was arrested when he was seventy on charges that â€Å"he does not believe in the gods recognized by the city, but introduces strange supernatural beings; he is also guilty, because he corrupts the youth. † The political reasons were kept quiet, instead focusing on impiety, and the sentence proposed was that of death, although those who accused him had no real desire to put him to death, only to force him to leave and no longer be a thorn in their sides. However, Socrates refused to leave, instead remaining behind to face the charges against him. A life away from his interactions with the Athenians would not have suited him, and so he remained. Important People of History Page 4 of 5 Socrates faced a jury of 501 men. This jury, as all Athenian juries, would vote twice. Their first vote was on guilt or innocence, and their second vote was for the sentence. While Socrates expected that he would be convicted, he expressed surprise at â€Å"how closely the jury was split on the first and basic question. † It was a difference of six percent that would have turned the tide, acquitting him. Socrates had the chance to avoid a sentence of death once the verdict came in. It was a practice of the Athenian law system to allow the defendant to put forth another punishment, and the jury would choose between the two. However, the punishment that Socrates suggested was merely a small fine, which was so minuscule a punishment that the jury had little choice but to condemn him to death. It was not for thirty days after his trial that Socrates would meet his end. During that time, his friend Crito appealed to him to escape, but Socrates believed that the harm that would come from that would be a greater harm to the city than to allow himself to follow through with the sentence, and that it would have â€Å"brought shame on his family and friends. † Socrates did not seem to fear his death. In fact, on the day upon which he was scheduled to die, he seemed quite happy and pleasant. Death was perhaps another opportunity for him to learn and experience. He was also not alone when the end came, as his wife and younger son, as well as friends, were present. He spent his last day doing what he loved best, discussing philosophy and once more passing on his wisdom. Xanthippe was taken home before his actual death took place, leaving him with his Important People of History Page 5 of 5 friends and advising them to agree if they believed what he said was truth, and to oppose it if they did not, refusing to restrain themselves. To the end, he was determined to hold onto his ideals and beliefs, and insisted on others doing so as well. After bathing and then meeting with his family once more, he met with his executioners. He was given a glass of hemlock after having its effects explained to him. After this formality, he â€Å"cheerfully took the cup and drank. † Thus ended the life of one of the most profound leaders of philosophy. Socrates, through all of his life, lived up to the ideals and beliefs that he taught. He never compromised these, even up to the day that he died. To him, the importance of remaining true to himself and his teachings was paramount, and to do otherwise would be an injustice. He did not simply talk and hope that others learned from him; he lived by example and died by the same. His legacy proved to be quite enduring, and is still a cornerstone of philosophy to this day. His students, such as Plato, helped to preserve this and pass it on. Without Plato and others, little would be known today of Socrates. The impression he made was a lasting one, and a good example even today, encouraging people not to be afraid to question and discuss, because without these things, learning cannot be successful. Works Cited Bury, J. B. and Russell Meiggs. A History of Greece. London: Macmillan Education LTD, 1975. Nails, Debra. â€Å"Socrates. † Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 16 Sept. 2005. . Stone, I. F. The Trial of Socrates. New York: Doubleday, 1989.

A Comparative Analysis: Juvenile and Adult Courts

For many years, people have believed that the juvenile justice system was meant to serve as a way to protect the community. Juveniles who commit crimes are different from adults because many do not understand the complexity of the crime committed. In order to respond to these differences, many states have established a way to treat these adolescents through juvenile courts and youth-based recovery systems. While most states recognize that juveniles who commit crimes should not be treated as an adult there are still some that are skeptic that the juvenile justice system works.The juvenile justice system began in 1899, in Chicago, Illinois where the nation’s first juvenile system was established. In the beginning the system was informal and often times it was nothing more than a conversation between the juvenile and a judge (Juvenile Law Center, 2013). Over the years the system has changed significantly where juvenile courts have created a probation system which provided a diffe rent method to provide juveniles with guidance, supervision, and education.By the 1920s all but two states had followed the suit but it was not until the 1960s where the juvenile justice system was given several of the same legal rights as the adult court. There are many differences between the juvenile and adult criminal systems but they also share their similarities. While their differences vary depending on the state, the similarities can be said to be our natural born rights. One of the main similarities is the right to an attorney (LaMance, 2013). The defendant has the choice of either choosing a public defender to represent them or to hire a paid attorney.Both courts not only give their defendants the right to cross-examine witnesses but also the privilege against self-incrimination. The prosecution must also provide proof beyond a reasonable doubt before either of the two can be charged and convicted (LaMance, 2013). The two also share the right to receive a transcript of the proceedings and the rights to have an appellate court review the lower court’s decision. One of the main differences is the overall goal for both courts.While the goal for the adult court is to  punish and convict, the juvenile justice system prefers the method of rehabilitation and reformation, thus giving the juvenile a chance to become a productive citizen (LaMance, 2013). Unlike adults, juveniles do not have the right to a public trial and an adjudication hearing is required in order for the judge to determine if the minor is a delinquent. If considered a delinquent, the court then decides which steps should be taken where the best interest for the juvenile is taken into consideration.The juvenile court is still more informal than that of the adult court (LaMance, 2013). An example of their informality is the rule for admissibility of evidence which is much more lenient in the juvenile court. Lastly juveniles are usually not prosecuted for the delinquent acts that he o r she has committed. However depending on the severity of the crime and state laws, juveniles can be transferred and tried in the adult system (LaMance, 2013). The adjudication process in which juveniles are transferred to the adult system varies by state.While some states enable the transfer of certain juveniles with a waiver, depending on their age and offense criteria, other states consider the juvenile to be an â€Å"automatic adult† (OJJDP National Report Series: Juvenile in Court, 2013). Although all states allow juveniles to be tried as adults in criminal court there are a few circumstances that follow. All states except for Nebraska, New Mexico, and New York provide a judicial waiver where the juvenile court judge has the authority to waive juvenile court jurisdiction and transfer cases to the adult court.Other states have a concurrent jurisdiction where the original jurisdiction for certain cases is shared by both juvenile and adult courts. The discretion under the c oncurrent jurisdiction is left to the prosecutor. Statutory exclusion is the legislative method, which mandates juvenile prosecution in adult court. Youths charged with certain crimes can be placed in the adult system automatically, thus removing any kind of decision making process from judges or prosecutors (OJJDP National Report Series: Juvenile in Court, 2013).In recent years states have significantly expanded legislation for allowing the use of judicial waivers. This trend has increased the number of juveniles incarcerated throughout the United States and has expectations to rise. Having a juvenile treated as an adult gives them the possibility of life or death sentences and incarceration in state of federal prisons which can have a tremendous impact on the life and future of a juvenile (Find Law, 2013).Although it may be served as a deterrent to some, sending juveniles directly to the adult criminal court gives the juvenile the impression that there is no room for rehabilitatio n or second chances, thus paving the way for a life of crime for others. Since the late 1970s, critics of the juvenile justice courts have pursued to abolish this system with the assumption that this system has failed its purpose, to rehabilitate juveniles (LaMance, 2013). Abolishing juvenile courts holds ramifications for not only juveniles but also the community.Eliminating these courts would mean that all juveniles, no matter the age or crime, would be treated as an adult. Many jobs and careers would be lost for those who have committed their lives to making a difference in the juvenile justice system, jobs such as social workers, juvenile detention guards, and juvenile probation officers. An argument can be made to abolish this system but the idea that young offenders whom are not mentally competent to understand their behavior still stands (LaMance, 2013).Therefore juveniles should be handled in a different court system. The juvenile justice system has grown and changed substan tially since 1899. The justifications of the juvenile court system are that youth are developmentally different from adults and should not be treated the same. Having a system that focuses on the needs of children, who are maturing into adulthood, not only gives the community hope but also gives the juvenile a real chance to rehabilitation and recovery.

Frederick Douglass Resurrection Essay - 734 Words

For hundreds of years, slaves in America were beaten, humiliated, and deprived of their basic needs. The unquestioned control of the slave masters had proved to be too despicable for some slaves to stand idly by. One such slave, Frederick Douglass, was even able to defeat his owner and achieve freedom. He uses his life’s story, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, to inspire Northerners to rise against the inhumanity in their own country. The excerpt â€Å"Resurrection† serves his purpose especially well for it uses not only the power of his diction and religious allusions, but also used with such eloquence that we can visualize the last drop of dark red blood fall from his body on the hard floor. One of the†¦show more content†¦He argues that they could take down the massive beast that were slaver holders at that time. Douglass’s transformation from an abused slave to practically a free man helps to prove it to the North. The strongest case he makes is the skirmish between him and his master, Covey. The actual fight would have taken only a few minutes, but Douglass describes every blow that he gives and takes so that every person, no matter their knowledge of anything in the South, would be able to understand the risk he took and his accomplishment. He also was able to recall minute details, like the smell of the barn, because it was so important to him, that he needed people to understand what he did. Hidden in Douglass’s details, there lives a strong connection to the main religious belief of the North, Christianity. He relates his own story to a story that of Jesus’s, which almost every person in the North, white or not, could understand and feel that Douglass was the protagonist in the situation. He uses subtle clues that help him achieve a positive relationship with Northern people. He mentions bleeding from the head after getting thorns in his head while he is running away from hi s captor. In the Bible, Jesus’s â€Å"crown† is made of a ring of thorns. This link is used to alter the northern’s perspective of his escape as necessary and the right thing for him to do. He also uses the three day time span of the piece to suggest hisShow MoreRelatedNarrative Of The Life Of Fredrick Douglass, An American Slave916 Words   |  4 PagesFredrick Douglass, an American Slave In Fredrick Douglass’s a narrative, Narrative of The Life of Fredrick Douglass, an American Slave, he narrates an account of his experiences in the dehumanizing institution of slavery. This American institution was strategically formatted to quench any resemblance of human dignity. Throughout, the narration of his life Fredrick Douglas, meticulously illustrates the methodical process that contributed to the perpetual state of slavery. In his narration Douglass, denouncesRead MoreThe Life And Times Of Frederick Douglass987 Words   |  4 PagesDouglass, Frederick. The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2003. Frederick, born in Maryland, grew up on the outskirts of the plantation where his Grandmother took care of him and other little children. His mother was a slave, and he did not know his father. Through Frederick’s early youth, he did not understand the unfair and brutal acts of slavery. As a young child, he alluded the humiliating and dehumanizing experiences typical of an AfricanRead MoreThe Narrative Of The Life Of Frederick Douglass1300 Words   |  6 Pageslife of Frederick Douglass gives readers a  detailed  overview  of the life of a slave who share his own personal  experiences and struggles from a slave to a freeman.   Frederick Douglass was born in Talbot county, Maryland. He was the son of Harriet Bailey and his father was a white man   (Douglass 1). After living with his master for nine months, Frederick was sent to stay with Mr. Covey, a man who is known for â€Å"breaking down young slaves† (Douglass 34). But while he was at Mr Covey’s Douglass faced manyRead More Critiques of Frederick Douglass Work, from The Narrative to the North Star1928 Words   |  8 PagesCritiques of Frederick Douglass Work, from The Narrative to the North Star Right is of no sex-Truth is of no color-God is the Father of us all, And all we are brethren. A brief biography of Frederick Douglass Some historical criticisms of Douglass Narrative New criticisms of Douglass work Frederick Douglass Links See the First edition of The North Star, Douglasss newspaper A brief biography of Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglass was born into the institution of slaveryRead MoreEssay On The Man Who Was Almost A Man773 Words   |  4 Pagesmanhood can be understood as the capacity of a man to handle a difficult situation. However, some people believe that manhood comes through action rather than material possessions. 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InRead MoreFrederick Douglass Realism1838 Words   |  8 PagesFrederick Douglass truly transformed American society by using realism and powerful rhetoric within his speeches. Douglass’s speeches and slave narrative not only clarified, but described in full detail real and life changing events of slavery that changed the tide of the Civil War. One of the greatest orators, Frederick Douglass, was first a slave. Frederick was born on â€Å"the Holme Hill Farm near Chesapeake Bay, Maryland† under the slave owners, the Alnuds (Pinkney 27). Frederick’s parents wereRead MoreEssay on Rhetoric of Resistance in Literature995 Words   |  4 Pageshave read material focusing on slave narratives, authentic and fictionalized. 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In autumn of 1828, Frederick Douglass beganRead More The Importance of Religion to American Slaves Essay2132 Words   |  9 Pageswhich they would be free. (Stammering Tongue, 60). In Frederick Douglass’ Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Douglass maintains that in the darkest hours of my career in slavery, this living word of faith and spirit of hope departed [not] from me, but remained like ministering angels to cheer me through gloom. The good spirit was from God, and to him I offer thanksgiving and praise (1775). Douglass’ belief that God is on his side helps secure the